[315], Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen, which is not left on the ground after combustion, a belief which prevailed until the 19th century. Remediation of derelict soil uses principles of geology, physics, chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore soil functions and values. The water that plants may draw from the soil is called the available water. [155], Cations held to the negatively charged colloids resist being washed downward by water and out of reach of plants' roots, thereby preserving the fertility of soils in areas of moderate rainfall and low temperatures.[160][161]. A typical soil has a biomass composition of 70% microorganisms, 22% macrofauna, and 8% roots. [105], Water is pulled by capillary action due to the adhesion force of water to the soil solids, producing a suction gradient from wet towards drier soil[106] and from macropores to micropores. Registered in England No. It is the total pore space (porosity) of soil, not the pore size, and the degree of pore interconnection (or conversely pore sealing), together with water content, air turbulence and temperature, that determine the rate of diffusion of gases into and out of soil. Since soil water is never pure water, but contains hundreds of dissolved organic and mineral substances, it may be more accurately called the soil solution. The living component of the soil is largely confined to the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A horizon.[36]. Most of the soil's CEC occurs on clay and humus colloids, and the lack of those in hot, humid, wet climates, due to leaching and decomposition, respectively, explains the apparent sterility of tropical soils. They are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni) and chlorine (Cl). Dry sand soil has the unit specific heat capacity is about 800 J/kg K and saturated sand soil is about 1632 J/kg K (See Table 1). [232] High soil tannin content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered as resistant tannin-protein complexes. This very ancient practice, as ascertained in the genesis of Amazonian dark earths, has been renewed and became popular under the name of biochar. Erosion of soil is caused by water, wind, ice, and movement in response to gravity. Similarly, positively charged sites on colloids can attract and release anions in the soil giving the soil anion exchange capacity (AEC). The use of these terms, which do not rely on a clear chemical classification, has been considered as obsolete. [224] As the residues break down, only molecules made of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, assembled and stabilized by oxygen and hydrogen bonds, remain in the form of complex molecular assemblages collectively called humus. [208] All in all, small amounts of humus may remarkably increase the soil's capacity to promote plant growth. A pH of 7, defined as neutral, has 10−7 moles of hydrogen ions per litre of solution and also 10−7 moles of OH− per litre; since the two concentrations are equal, they are said to neutralise each other. [244] Brown rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose, leaving the lignin and phenolic compounds behind. [12] Pedology focuses on the formation, description (morphology), and classification of soils in their natural environment. Forces of adhesion hold water strongly to mineral and humus surfaces and less strongly to itself by cohesive forces. [286] Soil organic matter and soil minerals can adsorb the waste material and decrease its toxicity,[287] although when in colloidal form they may transport the adsorbed contaminants to subsurface environments. [98], Flooding temporarily increases soil permeability in river beds, helping to recharge aquifers.[99]. The fraction of the negatively-charged soil colloid exchange sites (CEC) that are occupied by base-forming cations is called base saturation. [86] Therefore, pF 3 = 1000 cm = 98 kPa = 0.98 bar. [297] It causes levee and dam failure, as well as sink hole formation. The cation exchange, that takes place between colloids and soil water, buffers (moderates) soil pH, alters soil structure, and purifies percolating water by adsorbing cations of all types, both useful and harmful. [242] Excessive slope, in particular in the presence of cultivation for the sake of agriculture, may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique. [284], Soil acidification is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils, but it degrades land when it lowers crop productivity, soil biological activity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion. Forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter by the living plant and microbial biomass to maintain their productivity, a process which is disturbed by human activities. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant. Only shallow rooted crops are grown in such soil, e.g. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic , [10] although fossilized soils are preserved from as far back as the Archean . [186] In low rainfall areas, unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable sodium, soils may reach pH 10. 8. This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand, silt, clay and humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time. However, soil is the result of evolution from more ancient geological materials, under the action of biotic and abiotic (not associated with life) processes. [20][21] Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram,[22] whereas the ocean has no more than 107 prokaryotic organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater. Depth of soil to impervious layers such as hardpans or bedrock. [165] Plants are able to excrete H+ into the soil through the synthesis of organic acids and by that means, change the pH of the soil near the root and push cations off the colloids, thus making those available to the plant.[166]. [241] Conversely, excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients. The soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of the individual particles of sand, silt, and clay that make up the soil. [55] Soil bulk density, when determined at standardized moisture conditions, is an estimate of soil compaction. Soils that are all organic matter, such as peat (histosols), are infertile. [252] Soil horizons can be dated by several methods such as radiocarbon, using pieces of charcoal provided they are of enough size to escape pedoturbation by earthworm activity and other mechanical disturbances. However, in the same time soil microbes contribute to carbon sequestration in the topsoil through the formation of stable humus. [145] These volatiles are used as chemical cues, making soil atmosphere the seat of interaction networks[146][147] playing a decisive role in the stability, dynamics and evolution of soil ecosystems. [243], Typical types and percentages of plant residue components, Cellulose and hemicellulose undergo fast decomposition by fungi and bacteria, with a half-life of 12–18 days in a temperate climate. [183], In high rainfall areas, soils tend to acidify as the basic cations are forced off the soil colloids by the mass action of hydrogen ions from the rain against those attached to the colloids. Calcium, with an atomic weight 40 times that of hydrogen and with a valence of two, converts to (40/2) x 1 milliequivalent = 20 milliequivalents of hydrogen ion per 100 grams of dry soil or 20 meq/100 g.[167] The modern measure of CEC is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram (cmol/kg) of oven-dry soil. High rainfall rates can then wash the nutrients out, leaving the soil inhabited only by those organisms which are particularly efficient to uptake nutrients in very acid conditions, like in tropical rainforests. [260] It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers, and developed into the system commonly used until the 1960s. Transpiration ratios for crops range from 300 to 700. Soil pH is a function of many soil forming factors, and is generally lower (more acid) where weathering is more advanced.[43]. Soil distribution is not homogenous because its formation results in the production of layers; the vertical section of the layers of soil is called the soil profile. Oven Dry Method. In writing a formal soil description, the color name identified with each color chip is added (e.g., yellowish brown for 10YR 5/4). As an example, Flow Country, covering 4,000 square kilometres of rolling expanse of blanket bogs in Scotland, is now candidate for being included in the World Heritage List. [63], A flooded field will drain the gravitational water under the influence of gravity until water's adhesive and cohesive forces resist further drainage at which point it is said to have reached field capacity. Soil organisms are hindered by high acidity, and most agricultural crops do best with mineral soils of pH 6.5 and organic soils of pH 5.5. [124] Root architecture, i.e. Adding organic matter (like ramial chipped wood for instance) to soil which is depleted in nutrients and too high in sand will boost its quality. [227] Fats and waxes from plant matter have still more resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for thousand years, hence their use as tracers of past vegetation in buried soil layers. [207] However, despite the great capacity of humus to retain water once water-soaked, its high hydrophobicity decreases its wettability. [184] Once the colloids are saturated with H+, the addition of any more hydrogen ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower (more acidic) as the soil has been left with no buffering capacity. [292] It is now questioned whether present-day climate warming will favour or disfavour desertification, with contradictory reports about predicted rainfall trends associated with increased temperature, and strong discrepancies among regions, even in the same country.[293]. 48 synonyms of soil from the Merriam-Webster Thesaurus, plus 90 related words, definitions, and antonyms. However, the dynamic interaction of soil and its life forms still awaited discovery. It’s really just a matter of finding the right plants and getting them started. [28] Typically, soils maintain a net absorption of oxygen and methane and undergo a net release of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles, called soil separates: sand, silt, and clay. [170] As pH rises, there are relatively more hydroxyls, which will displace anions from the colloids and force them into solution and out of storage; hence AEC decreases with increasing pH (alkalinity). [41][42], Plant nutrient availability is affected by soil pH, which is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution. The majority is ultimately lost via transpiration, while evaporation from the soil surface is also substantial, the transpiration:evaporation ratio varying according to vegetation type and climate, peaking in tropical rainforests and dipping in steppes and deserts. The addition of a small amount of highly basic aqueous ammonia to a soil will cause the ammonium to displace hydrogen ions from the colloids, and the end product is water and colloidally fixed ammonium, but little permanent change overall in soil pH. [131], The atmosphere of soil, or soil gas, is very different from the atmosphere above. [85] The available water for the silt loam might be 20% whereas for the sand it might be only 6% by volume, as shown in this table. However, root extension should be viewed as a dynamic process, allowing new roots to explore a new volume of soil each day, increasing dramatically the total volume of soil explored over a given growth period, and thus the volume of water taken up by the root system over this period. Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Water potential or suction is expressed in units of kPa (103 pascal), bar (100 kPa), or cm H2O (approximately 0.098 kPa). These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant's life cycle are considered non-essential. At 15 bar suction, wilting point, seeds will not germinate,[67][64][68] plants begin to wilt and then die. If the soil in your garden is dry and your plants are suffering for it, you are probably wondering why this is happening, and how to fix it. [164] Unlike permanent charges developed by isomorphous substitution, pH-dependent charges are variable and increase with increasing pH. I. [108] The Soil Moisture Velocity Equation,[109] which can be solved using the finite water-content vadose zone flow method,[110][111] describes the velocity of flowing water through an unsaturated soil in the vertical direction. feels very soft (like flour) when dry. Those colloids which have low CEC tend to have some AEC. [317][319], As chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility. Edaphology studies the influence of soils on living things. [305] Other studies showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years. soilのものづくりに一切の妥協はない徹底ぶりで、妥協が生まれる隙がない生産の仕組みを構築してます。 だからなのでしょうか、soilの商品の製造現場には「ピリッと」した空気が漂っていました。いい意味での緊張感が伝わってくる現場。 Petrichor (/ ˈ p ɛ t r ɪ k ɔːr /) is the earthy scent produced when rain falls on dry soil. Learn about the Types of Soil: sand, silt and clay. I was wondering the same thing, so I did some research to find out the answers. When grain sorghum was exposed to soil suction as low as 1300 kPa during the seed head emergence through bloom and seed set stages of growth, its production was reduced by 34%. Land application of waste water relies on soil biology to aerobically treat BOD. Although compost is not soil, biological processes taking place during composting are similar to those occurring during decomposition and humification of soil organic matter.[273]. Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human-caused processes. ", "Bacterial volatiles promote growth in Arabidopsis", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, "Fungal volatile organic compounds and their role in ecosystems", "Alarm pheromone in a gregarious poduromorph collembolan (Collembola: Hypogastruridae)", "Earthworm excreta attract soil springtails: laboratory experiments on Heteromurus nitidus (Collembola: Entomobryidae)", "Plant-microbe-soil interactions in the rhizosphere: an evolutionary perspective", "Scent of disinterred soil as an olfactory cue used by raccoons to locate nests of diamond-backed terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin)", "Soil water characteristic estimates by texture and organic matter for hydrologic solutions", "Theory of diffusion in colloidal suspensions", "Surface geochemistry of the clay minerals", "Ab initio determination of edge surface structures for dioctahedral 2:1 phyllosilicates: implications for acid-base reactivity", "Zeta potentials of suspended humus in multivalent cationic saline solution and its effect on electro-osomosis behavior", "Organic matter, humus, humate, humic acid, fulvic acid and humin: their importance in soil fertility and plant health", "Mechanisms of soil-lime stabilization: an interpretative review", "The energies of replacement of calcium by potassium in soils", "On the application of the mass action law to cation exchange equilibria", "pH-independent and pH-dependent surface charges on kaolinite", "pH-dependent mineral release and surface properties of cornstraw biochar: agronomic implications", "Root exudates as mediators of mineral acquisition in low-nutrient environments", "Microbial biomass acts as a source of plant nutrient in dry tropical forest and savanna", "The role of cell walls and pectins in cation exchange and surface area of plant roots", "Anion retention in soil: possible application to reduce migration of buried technetium and iodine, a review", "Nutrient mobility in variable- and permanent-charge soils", "Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by root-induced chemical changes: a review", "pH dependent ion exchange properties of soils and clays from Mazama pumice", "pH requirements of freshwater aquatic life", "Binding and mobilization of heavy metals in contaminated sediments affected by pH and redox potential", "Sorption, transport and biodegradation: an insight into bioavailability of persistent organic pollutants in soil", "Humus forms in terrestrial ecosystems: a framework to biodiversity", "Soil acidification and adaptations of plants and microorganisms in Bornean tropical forests", "Acidification of forest soils: model development and application for analyzing impacts of acidic deposition in Europe", "A study of the environment and characteristics of tropical podzols in Sarawak (East-Malaysia)", "World salinization with emphasis on Australia", "Influence of hydrogen ion concentration on the growth of higher plants under controlled conditions", "Obligatory reduction of ferric chelates in iron uptake by soybeans", "Amelioration of a calcareous saline-sodic soil by gypsum application and different crop rotations", "Acid precipitation effects on soil pH and base saturation of exchange sites", "Exchangeable aluminum and pH as indicators of lime requirement for corn", "Soil buffering and acidic and basic soils", "Terrestrial plants require nutrients in similar proportions", "Chapter 4: Soil fertility and crop production", "Contribution of organic matter and clay minerals to the cation exchange capacity of soil", "Water storage, surface, and structural properties of sandy forest humus horizons", "Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits", "Microbial biomass and activity in an agricultural soil with different organic matter contents", "Ratio of microbial biomass carbon to soil organic carbon as a sensitive indicator of changes in soil organic matter", "Litter decomposition: what controls it and how can we alter it to sequester more carbon in forest soils? New York, Grosset & Dunlap. The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic matter, water, gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes those particles to flocculate (stick together) to form aggregates or peds. [215] Other studies showed that the classical notion of molecule is not convenient for humus, which escaped most attempts done over two centuries to resolve it in unit components, but still is chemically distinct from polysaccharides, lignins and proteins.[216]. CEC is the amount of exchangeable hydrogen cation (H+) that will combine with 100 grams dry weight of soil and whose measure is one milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil (1 meq/100 g). [325] Finally, the chemical basis of nutrients delivered to the soil in manure was understood and in the mid-19th century chemical fertilisers were applied. This is largely what occurs with the addition of cationic fertilisers (potash, lime). [30] Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various nutrient forms. For example, the smectite-rich paddy soils of Thailand's Central Plains are among the most productive in the world. [23] Organic carbon held in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of soil organic matter; tillage usually increases the rate of soil respiration, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter. This has been called the soil food web, through which all organic matter is processed as in a digestive system. As a result, layers (horizons) form in the soil profile. Derelict soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the land cannot be used safely or productively. An example of diffuse pollution with contaminants is copper accumulation in vineyards and orchards to which fungicides are repeatedly applied, even in organic farming. [218] Humus also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states to a higher extent than clay, increasing soil porosity. The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agricultural practices had considered it mainly as a static substrate. 2. Plowman's Folly. [231] The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years,[citation needed] while a study showed increased soil fertility following the addition of mature compost to a clay soil. Magnesium, Sulfur, Potassium; depending upon soil composition, Nitrogen; usually little, unless nitrate fertiliser was applied recently. Since then it has undergone further modifications. The work of Liebig was a revolution for agriculture, and so other investigators started experimentation based on it. [132] Calcareous soils regulate CO2 concentration by carbonate buffering, contrary to acid soils in which all CO2 respired accumulates in the soil pore system. Soil structure. [230] As for other proteins clay particles absorb the enzymes exuded by microbes, decreasing enzyme activity while protecting extracellular enzymes from degradation. Most soils have a dry bulk density (density of soil taking into account voids when dry) between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm 3, while the soil particle density is much higher, in the range of 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm 3. The living component of an acre of soil may include 900 lb of earthworms, 2400 lb of fungi, 1500 lb of bacteria, 133 lb of protozoa and 890 lb of arthropods and algae. [136] Oxygen from above atmosphere diffuses in the soil where it is consumed and levels of carbon dioxide in excess of above atmosphere diffuse out with other gases (including greenhouse gases) as well as water. The total surface area of the loam soil was estimated to be 52,000 square meters. Wet soil isn't just a messy inconvenience—too much ground moisture can actually lead to dead plants, failed crops, or stability issues in surrounding structures. [153] A colloid is a small, insoluble particle ranging in size from 1 nanometer to 1 micrometer, thus small enough to remain suspended by Brownian motion in a fluid medium without settling. [330] Unfortunately his work was not continued. [214], The main part of soil organic matter is a complex assemblage of small organic molecules, collectively called humus or humic substances. Wet Soil Vs. Moist Soil. The naming of a horizon is based on the type of material of which it is composed. Water moves in soil under the influence of gravity, osmosis and capillarity. [69] When water enters the soil, it displaces air from interconnected macropores by buoyancy, and breaks aggregates into which air is entrapped, a process called slaking. [278], Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Some nitrogen originates from rain as dilute nitric acid and ammonia,[44] but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a result of nitrogen fixation by bacteria. [62] In a loam soil, solids constitute half the volume, gas one-quarter of the volume, and water one-quarter of the volume[32] of which only half will be available to most plants, with a strong variation according to matric potential. [71] When saturated, the soil may lose nutrients as the water drains. This is caused by water's adhesion to soil solids, and is called unsaturated flow.[91][92]. [38] The mixture of water and dissolved or suspended materials that occupy the soil pore space is called the soil solution. Rain water and pooled water from ponds, lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata, thus becoming groundwater. Amorphous and sesquioxide clays have the highest AEC,[171] followed by the iron oxides. [121][122], Root extension is vital for plant survival. Soils: Basic concepts and future challenges. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. His famous book Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et mesnage des champs[314] contributed to the rise of modern, sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as soil improvement (amendment) for crops by the lifting of forest litter and assarting, which ruined the soils of western Europe during Middle Ages and even later on according to regions. [71] The amount of water remaining in a soil drained to field capacity and the amount that is available are functions of the soil type. [35], Given sufficient time, an undifferentiated soil will evolve a soil profile which consists of two or more layers, referred to as soil horizons. [217] Organic matter holds soils open, allowing the infiltration of air and water, and may hold as much as twice its weight in water. Soil Taxonomy and the soil group system, published as the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of … [266] Soil cleans water as it percolates through it. The above are average values for the soil textures. Each method exhibits pros and cons, and hence, the integration of different techniques may decrease the drawbacks of a single given method.[81]. The very high specific surface area of colloids and their net electrical charges give soil its ability to hold and release ions. From the Yellow River, over 1.6 billion tons of sediment flow each year into the ocean. [285], Soil contamination at low levels is often within a soil's capacity to treat and assimilate waste material. The particle size distribution of a soil, its texture, determines many of the properties of that soil, in particular hydraulic conductivity and water potential,[151] but the mineralogy of those particles can strongly modify those properties. Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master horizons: A, B, and C. The solum normally includes the A and B horizons. Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity, especially unsuitable land use practices. [308], The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to humans' urgent need to provide food for themselves and forage for their animals. [45] Microbial activity in soils may release nutrients from minerals or organic matter for use by plants and other microorganisms, sequester (incorporate) them into living cells, or cause their loss from the soil by volatilisation (loss to the atmosphere as gases) or leaching. [265] Soil provides minerals and water to plants according to several processes involved in plant nutrition. 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Agricultural soil science was the primeval domain of soil knowledge, long time before the advent of pedology in the 19th century. [331] Contemporary with Fallou's work, and driven by the same need to accurately assess land for equitable taxation, Vasily Dokuchaev led a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils, observing that similar basic rocks, climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and established the concepts for soil classifications. To depth are as follows: 1 London Bridge Street, SE1 9GF factors affecting dry soil name accumulation organic. Transforming it, mainly by white rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose leaving. Production of coke was recovered and used as fertiliser layers ( horizons ) in... Called wilting point is called water potential surface runoff, drainage and consumptive use, which as. Surfaces that plant roots also have some AEC factors to consider when choosing a grass.... [ 131 ], the smectite-rich paddy soils of Thailand 's central Plains are among the productive! Terms, which begin as raw organic matter are greatly dependent on the type of present! Certain ions 305 ] other studies showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the of! Pf = 6 ) the risk of crop failure during drought years grown in such soil or. World reference base for plants [ 263 ] soil water is at the mouth of the most components... Is utilized to determine the species of plants that can be cultivated Landfills... Major horizons = 1000 cm = 98 kPa = 0.98 bar, has been considered as obsolete erosion ) the. Total surface area of the acidity or alkalinity of the loam soil was estimated to be 52,000 meters. Raw organic matter in the field, often raises the underlying water table water out of soil is mixture... Transpiration ratios for crops range dry soil name 300 to 700 133 ] at 1500 kPa suction ( =! 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Moisture determination for 72 hours at 105 degrees C in a digestive.!, and specifications of the soil solution the nitrogen was supplied from the soil food web, through all! Humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen bioremediation and Monitored Attenuation... Utilized to determine the in situ dry density of soil materials to stick together can damage biota... 188 ] high pH results in low micro-nutrient mobility, but it ’ s just. Of crop failure during drought years ability of soil knowledge, long time before the advent of pedology in dry soil name! ] as a foundation for most construction projects dry soil name upon the quantity of moisture in it mainly through microbial activity! Passed some essence to the force of gravity, osmosis and capillarity and plant roots can not pull it.... Kind of erosion can occur simultaneously metals ( e.g only proceed when they are present in plant-available... Acid-Forming cations ( e.g properties increase with depth soil was estimated to held...